Public Speaking Self-Reflection Essay

In order for public speaking to become a skill, there are a few areas in which I need to improve to make it a suitable strength. Public speaking is not a weakness for me but I would like to transform it into one of my strengths. During my two minute presentation, I found that in order to do this I need to improve my ability to perform long speeches without hesitation, maintain eye contact, and be energetic in front of an audience showing more overview what topic I am discussing. In class I plan to work on take the steps of improving my verbal communication in front of my peers. While talking I plan to avoid using filler words that will drag a speech on and draw less interest from my audience. Being able to talk among my peers by keeping good eye contact on them at all times. By doing this it allows me the freedom to walk around and not be completely immobile when giving a speech. Understanding how to organize my work to have a solid overview on what I will be saying when presenting. With this class I hope it takes me to a whole new level on how to talk to people and how to control my emotions when in front of any audience regardless who it is. By allowing myself this sense of understand and awareness will help give me a sense of calmness giving me the ability to stand up and say what I need to say when giving a speech or if I am in a crowd listening to someone speak to offer my views on what is being said. In order for myself to improve my weak areas to accomplish my goals I will have to do the following: first write a speech and review it, next go over the speech many times in a place I feel safe performing the speech. After this find a mirror, use this to help reduce my fear when speaking in front of people. If this doesn’t work for me I can always use my family to help me. This will be continued to repeat itself until I felt I was ready to give my p resentation. Once I have accomplished improving my shortcomings will have the tools needed to be successful in any  job related to my career field.

Rock Music and Free Time

Without music life would be a mistake! My hobbies are singing and dancing. Regarding the most popular hobbies, people like playing basketball or football, reading, stamp collecting, etc. However, I love to listen to music and also to sing. I have a large and superb collection of tracks and I listen to all kinds of music. My collection ranges from hip hop music to rock and from blues music to rap. My hobby is listening to these songs carefully and then to learn them. I sit with a piece of paper and a pen while I write down the lyrics of the songs that I hear.Then I hum along and soon I know the tunes too. I switch off the Black Berry recorder and then I pretend to be the singer myself. I sing the song exactly it was sung by the playback singer. I sometimes succeed and I sometimes fail. Once I feel that I sing perfectly I tape my own voice. When I listen to the recording I am objective and try to find my faults in singing. This helps me to improve my singing and I feel confident and th rilled. Whenever I go to a party, my friends persuade me to dance. Once I begin, the party livens up, people join in and the place is filled with the sound of music.I feel proud of myself and my friends also praise me because they feel that I become the life of the party. I listen to music and I sing every day when I go to school or when I have a free time in school. My hobby makes me happy and at least brings joy to my sister and friends. In my opinion, it is necessary that everybody have a hobby. It educates people; they give their pleasure, and help them to use his free time fruitfully. If a person has no hobby, he will turn him free time into something useful? From my point of view, if I were you I would listen to music every day.

Araling panlipunan

At least 2000 years before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Philippines are home to small seafaring communities. These communities traded with neighboring countries such as Malaysia, Vietnam and China through barter. Chinese Ming Dynasty porcelain and metal ware have been unearthed in various parts of the Philippines. Tropical items such as gold pieces, beeswax, and pearls were among the trading goods of pre-colonial Filipinos; Chinese merchants brought with them porcelain, metal ware and silk. The first form of coinage in the country was gold beads, referred to as piloncitos. Beads, barter rings of varying sizes and other gold pieces were some of the objects used in commerce. The term piloncito comes from the word pilon, a local sugar container that resembles the coin. They are engraved with the Brahmanic character ma which looks like an upside down R. We can only guess that this character refers to the pre-colonial kingdom of Ma-yi which is roughly the Philippines we know today. Spanish Era Manila became the trading center of oriental goods under the Spanish rule. The setup introduced alternative forms of currencies to the Philippines. Macuquinas (cobs),dos mundos (pillar dollars),counter stamped and portrait series coins, all made of silver, slowly replaced the gold beads. Due to the shortage of fractional coins, the Royalty of Spain authorized the production of copper coins by the Municipality of Manila. In 1728, the first copper coins called barillas were issued. Peso Fuertes, the first bank notes, was circulated in 1852. In 1861, Casa de Moneda de Manila minted the first gold coins called Isabelinas and Alfonsinos. Both of these gold coins are inscribed with the word Filipinas. Revolutionary Period After Emilio Aguinaldo was proclaimed the President of the First Philippine Republic, two kinds of 2-centavo coins were struck in the army arsenal in Malolos, Bulacan. Paper money was also issued. The American Regime In 1901, America defeated Spain and took over the country. The Philippine Coinage Act was passed by the US Congress. It authorized the production of  silver coins from 1903 to 1912. These coins were minted from the Philadelphia, San Francisco and Denver mints. The coin was designed by a young Filipino artist named Melecio Figueroa. Silver certificates were issued until 1918, later replaced with Treasury Certificates from 1918 to 1935. Because of high cost of minting and transportation, the American government decided to re-open the Manila mint in 1920. The mint produced coins until the Comm onwealth government. Notable coins during this period are those issued for use within the Culion Leper Colony. Republic Period In 1949, the Central Bank of the Philippines was created through the Republic Act No. 265. The English Series, the CBPs first official banknotes, was issued in 1951. It was followed by the Pilipino Series in 1967, the Ang Bagong Lipunan Series in 1973 and the New Design Series in 1985. English Series coins were introduced in 1959, followed by the Pilipino Series in 1967, the Ang Bagong Lipunan Series in 1975. The Flora and Fauna Series was introduced in 1983. An improved version was circulated in 1992. All of these series were demonetized in 1998. GANITO KAMI: Saint Catherine of Sienna MAGULO, MAINGAY, LOKO-LOKO, PASAWAY, SAKIT SA ULO AT IRESPONSABLE: Ganyan kami kung ituturing. Pero syempre, kung may hindi magaganda, meron namang katanggap-taggap sa lahat; May PAGKAKAISA, PAGMAMAHALAN, PAGKAKAIBIGAN at higit sa lahat, may MALASAKIT SA BAWAT ISA. Ayan ang mga bagay na hinding-hindi namin maitatanggi sa iba. Kung minsan, kami’y sakit sa ulo, ngunit gagawa at gagawa kami ng paraan para lang makabawi sa taong nagawan namin ng mali o kasalanan. Lahat ng gulo, pag-aaway o hindi pagkakaunawaan sa loob ng klase ay nagagawa naming solusyonan; dahil lamang sa aming PAGMAMAHAL. Mga pag-aaway na minsa’y nagdudulot ng hirap at pasakit sa aming guro. Lalong lalo na sa aming Gurong-tagapayo na si Ms. Cherrylyn L. Nitoral. Madalas kaming magkaroon ng alitan sa kanya. Pero syempre, gagawa kami ng paraan para maayos ang aming relasyon sa kanya. Sabi nila, ang St. Catherine daw ang pinakamatalino sa lahat ng seksyon sa aming â€Å"batch†. At ito ang aming hindi pinababayaang mawala. Dahil dito, labis na natutuwa ang aming â€Å"Adviser†. Iniisip tuloy namin na ito ang nakakapagpawala ng â€Å"stress† na dulot ng iba naming kaklase sa kanya. Kaya naman, sinusubukan talaga naming maging responsible para lang sa kanya. Ganyan ang ST. CATHERINE. MAGULO, MAINGAY, LOKO-LOKO, PASAWAY, SAKIT SA ULO AT IRESPONSABLE pero may kaya parin kaming maipagmalaki. May PAGKAKAISA, PAGMAMAHALAN, PAGKAKAIBIGAN at higit sa lahat, may MALASAKIT SA BAWAT ISA ang tanging mayroon kami na pinagkakaingat-ingatan namin.

Survey on Security in Electronic Voting Systems Essay

Survey on Security in Electronic Voting Systems - Essay Example Due to this, the system provides uniqueness of votes ensuring that no voter can vote more than once. The receipt that the voter receives after casting a ballot cannot be used to prove to any third party that they cast a specific vote with the intention to coerce them. The system also allows for the verification of individual votes to assure the voters that their votes have been accurately recorded. This can be achieved by inspecting both sides of the ballot paper and checking to see if the unique random number on the voting receipt is on the bulletin board. It also provides accountability such that third parties can confirm that the voting process was valid. The results are only released after the official counting is complete to ensure fairness and to discourage malicious actions by observers. The end to end verification system which allows the detection of malicious behavior at various stages of the voting process also reduces chances of invalid votes. The disadvantages of the syst em: The main disadvantages of the system are the security issues involved in electronic voting. Data is susceptible to interruptions and alteration by the installation of viruses in online databases by operators with malicious intentions. There is also unequal access to the internet by voters due to unequal chances of acquiring equipment necessary for electronic voting. Due to the differences in salaries, some voters may be left out from the voting process. The system can be improved by several methods. The E-voting scheme is only applicable for general elections with several contending candidates which feature the majority and plurality style election styles. The scheme can be improved to function in proportional representation. The system is however vulnerable. Parties that are entrusted to execute the algorithm of scheme may compromise the system to work in an abnormal way. The installation of a virus onto the databases could also lead to discrepancies in the results of the votin g process. The article on a practical secret voting scheme for large scale elections proposes a secret voting system which involves voters, an administrator and a counter which can be replaced with a public board as the participants of the process. It is applicable for a large scale election where it protects the privacy of the voter and ensures the fairness of the voting process regardless of the actions of the administrator and counter. Every voter has a unique ordinary signature scheme while the administrator has a blind signature scheme. The counter is only tasked with the creation and publish of a list of ballots. The system has several advantages: It solves the fairness and privacy issues portrayed in the previous methods of the encryption of files and sending of ballots through secret means of communication. The security of the scheme is ensured by the correct counting of all valid votes. The process is clear, sound and accountable and promotes fairness to discourage dishones ty in voters that would affect the process. The votes are kept private. The voters have to provide their credentials which ensures that every voter is qualified and to prevent the casting

Annotated bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 10

Annotated bibliography - Essay Example Such categorization helps to give priority to things that need our immediate attention. This article is especially useful for employers to understand the expenditure their companies incur over long periods of time. This article shows how to group expenses into different categories to keep track of the expenses incurred. It tells us that by allotting a certain amount of money towards each category, it is easier to keep track of how much is spent in any particular category. In this way we can track if a particular category is over shooting expenses. The article highlights the fact that though budgets are considered a necessary evil, it is important that they are well maintained and updated on a regular basis. It also explains the three main steps necessary for maintaining a budget and they are as follows – 1) Identifying expenditure, 2) Evaluating current expenditure, and 3) Maintaining a regular track record of all the expenses. This article is particularly useful for those in the field of finance because it gives many important tips on budget maintenance. In this article the author explains the necessity of maintaining budgets saying that it helps to keep a control on one’s finances.‎ Budgets are used for various purposes such as – Controlling income and expenditure, providing direction, Motivating employees, Improving efficiency, Establishing the company’s priorities and for Monitoring employees performance. In this context, the managers play a pivotal role in maintaining proper communication between the employers and employees and lay down the plan of action based on the budget given. This article was very useful as it had many guiding principles that help to keep finances of any kind under control. This article is important in the sense that it is a good guide to Budget Management. It gives us necessary information

Effects of Rising Sea Levels on Costal Populations at the End of the Term Paper

Effects of Rising Sea Levels on Costal Populations at the End of the last Ice Age - Term Paper Example As a result, there is a great chasm of study and information regarding the events of the last ice age and its impact on the environment together with the current condition of these places. It is imperative to examine the occurrence of the last age and expose the magnitude of harm and the damage done on the environment. The study will particularly focus on the coastal populations and how they were affected by the events of the last age. Finally, archeological inquiry should be performed to explore the submerged areas. ... The expansive arena endeavors to comprehend whether the environment of past people was a significant parameter in achieving cultural change or just a simple dynamic for development (Anderson, 2010). Through the reconstruction on ancient environments, archeologists obtain understanding regarding the adaptations of past civilizations that were imperative for living as well as the distinct environmental changes that were pivotal in their disappearance. Similarly, environmental archeology can be described as a sub discipline of archaeology that primarily concentrates on the effects of a particular culture on the atmosphere. Environmental archeology, therefore, involves the comprehensive evaluation of the relationship between culture and environment to determine if the environment were incidental in cultural change (or just a common feature in the development of the relevant culture). The last ice age was of great implication on the environment and it immensely affected the coastal popula tion in a significant way (Farley, 2002). However, the unavailability of research information on the relevant events of the ice age and its implications on the environment and people has made it difficult to comprehend the exact effect of the occurrence. The study will endeavor to conduct an in-depth evaluation of the events of the last ice age; more so the melting of the polar caps its effect on the human population as well as perform an archeological examination of the current state of the submerged areas. Research Question This study will endeavor to answer the developed research question in a practical and theoretical way; that will provide more insight on the relevance of

Ethics and Corporate Accounting Practices Research Paper

Ethics and Corporate Accounting Practices - Research Paper Example It is the structure with the help of which the objectives of the company are developed and means for attaining those goals and objective and ways of monitoring them are determined. In this scenario the role of ethics is well understood. Ethics is the moral philosophy, which involves systematic study of honest obligations, agreements, values and rules (Bloxham, 2011). Ethically carrying out the business operation in organizations is a general norm that prevails since the ancient ages. However, ethical norms or governance in case of financial reporting is a comparatively new concept, which is further transformed due to the challenging global business scenario. The major article that has been selected for this study is â€Å"Corporate governance and sustainability: New and old models of thinking†, by Eleanor Bloxham published in 2010. It discusses the traditional as well as latest significance of corporate governance in organizations. Apart from this, the transformations of the f inancial models with the changing times have been also stated. However, there are other supporting articles that have been utilized in this study in order to present a 360 degree view of corporate governance and its impacts. ... Apart from this, the role and usage of technology in financial record-keeping would be scrutinized, so as discuss the strengths and weakness of the IT based infrastructure in corporate governance. CRITICAL EVALUATION Responsibility of Corporate Governance The responsibility of corporate governance does not lie only on the shoulders of the managers in the organization. Before focusing specifically towards corporate governance in case of financial decisions making, a brief discussion on the stakeholders of the organization that are also responsible for maintaining ethics and governance in the organization would be presented in this section. There are approaches around the world based on which the role of the shareholders in corporate governance has been defined. In countries like UK and US, the corporate governance norms focus on maximizing the wealth of the shareholders through efficient means off course. However, in the primacy approach the shareholders are treated as stakeholders wh ere directors have the legal enforcement to consider the duties of the shareholders. From the economic perspective, shareholders are the risk bearers for the company. While another approach states that shareholder's primacy should be followed and directors are primarily accountable to the shareholders (Hib, 2012). Board of directors holds the major position in case of corporate governance. They are accountable to the stakeholders and primarily to the shareholders of the company. The board also focuses on the performance of the organization and the board. The management is responsible for the sustainability by enhancing the enterprise value of the company and also directs the company towards its corporate objective. It is the

Oryx and Crake Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Oryx and Crake - Essay Example Atwood depicts several moods and situations through few sentences and has the advantage of presenting a detailed description of a future that is unfamiliar in the minds of most readers. However, her skills in including specific details help sketch a precise vision of every such instance. The central theme of the story focuses on the process of creating newer forms of life by way of genetic engineering, which has been a phenomenon for the past several decades. This has led to the introduction of numerous weird creatures such as wolvogs and rakunks (a combination of the genes from different animals) in addition to creating life forms which are abnormally larger or smaller than their natural dimensions. The story, narrated through a series of small episodes, provides for the considerate discussion of a specific theme along each episode, thereby allowing Atwood to express her strong feelings in diverse areas. Despite the seriousness of the topic being dealt by her story, she includes a great deal of humor into her story in places like the depiction of the Martha Graham College and Jimmy, its student in English, who is the principal character in the story. ‘Oryx and Cake’ describes a period not far from our own where several aspects of life are quite similar, thereby allowing the reader a sense of familiarity along a sensible progression of time. The society as depicted in ‘Oryx and Cake’ comprises the privileged classes who thrive in closely guarded settlements and those who live around these areas in lesser favorable circumstances. The rich sell their wares to these less fortunate people, referred to in the story as ‘pleebs’, whereby the latter is clearly at the losing side of the bargain. The rich controlled the society through genetic fiddling and maintained a strict oversight over resources such as food and livestock. In fact, the

Best marketing practices in travel trade industry Essay

Best marketing practices in travel trade industry - Essay Example In this "Best marketing practices in travel trade industry" essay, the author describes the changes that the Internet has brought into travel industry and also possibilities that it gave. This work also portrays the best examples of travel marketing on the Internet. To get an idea about the optimal and more advanced way of travel marketing through internet an example of YellowstonePark.com is cited. The online travel company YellowstonePark.com is voted the number one tourism site of the world with about 60 million hits recorded. (â€Å"Online Marketing Strategies for Travel USA 2009†, 2009) The company focuses on a policy where it does not only promotes the trip planning to the customers but eventually inspires them. The tourism site intelligently uses destination-focuses travel notes which engage the customers more. The average time spent by any customer is about 15 minutes. (â€Å"Online Marketing Strategies for Travel USA 2009†, 2009) The company also uses email as one of the major cost effective sources to turn the web browsers into actual visitors and finally converting them into customers. (â€Å"Online Marketing Strategies for Travel USA 2009†, 2009) The feedback process and the other interactive internet uses actually increase the popularity of the site and also for the company. It should be noted that the level of negotiation between the different service providers will influence the electronic business transactions to a significant level. (Velasquez, Rios, Howlett, Jain, 2009, p.103).

Assessment Tool Essay Example for Free

Assessment Tool Essay †¢ Assessment is an ongoing process that includes collecting, synthesizing and interpreting information about pupils, the classroom and their instruction. †¢ Testing is one form of assessment that, appropriately applied, systematically meas- ures skills such as literacy and numeracy. †¢ While it does not provide a complete picture, testing is an important tool, for both its efficiency and ability to measure prescribed bodies of knowledge. †¢ Alternative or â€Å"authentic† forms of assess- ment can be culturally sensitive and pose an alternative to testing, but they require a larger investment in establishing criteria for  judging development and training evaluators. †¢ Child assessment has value that goes well beyond measuring progress in children – to evaluating programs, identifying staff development needs and planning future instruction. †¢ The younger the child, the more difficult it is to obtain valid assessments. Early develop- ment is rapid, episodic and highly influenced by experience. Performance on an assessment is affected by children’s emotional states and the conditions of the assessment. Policy Recommendations: †¢ Require that measures included in an assess- ment be selected by qualified professionals  to ensure that they are reliable, valid and appropriate for the children being assessed. †¢ Develop systems of analyses so that test scores are interpreted as part of a broader assessment that may include observations, portfolios, or ratings from teachers and/or parents. †¢ Base policy decisions on an evaluation of data that reflects all aspects of children’s development – cognitive, emotional, social, and physical. †¢ Involve teachers and parents in the assess- ment process so that children’s behaviors and abilities can be understood in various contexts and cooperative relationships among families and school staff can be  fostered. †¢ Provide training for early childhood teachers and administrators to understand and inter- pret standardized tests and other measures of learning and development. Emphasize precautions specific to the assessment of young children. NIEER Assessment of preschool-age children who may not reliably or uniformly respond to inquiry has been the subject of much debate. The growing emphasis on testing young children as a means of holding programs accountable for their learning has intensified the discussion. Though there are legitimate concerns regarding standardized testing, it and other forms of assessment are necessary  components of all high-quality early education programs. Properly conceived assessments are important to understanding and sup- porting young children’s development. They are also essential to documenting and evaluating how effectively programs are meeting young children’s educational needs. For assessments to be effective, they must be practical, cost-efficient and meet reasonable standards of efficiency and validity. Testing usually involves a series of direct requests for children to perform, within a set amount of time, specific tasks designed and administered by adults. These tasks have predetermined answers. Alternative forms of assessment are more open-ended and often look at performance over an extended period. Examples include structured observations, portfolio analyses of individual and collaborative work, and teacher and parent ratings of children’s behavior. What Can Be Learned Assessment can provide the following four types of information for and about children and their parents, teachers and programs: †¢ Screen children to see if they need intervention—particularly when par- ents and teachers suspect a problem. †¢ Plan instruction for individuals and groups of children. †¢ Identify program improvement and staff development needs. †¢ Evaluate how well a program is meet- ing goals and needs for children. Data should be aggregated to determine whether desired outcomes are being achieved. Why Assessment is Important Preschool Policy Facts â€Å"Assessment is the process of collecting, synthesizing and interpreting information to aid classroom decision-making. It includes information gathered about pupils, instruction and classroom climate. â€Å"Testing is a formal, systematic procedure for gathering a sample of pupils’ behavior. The results of a test are used to make generalizations about how pupils would have performed on similar but untested behaviors. † — Peter Airasian, Assessment in the Classroom 2 The quality of an assessment depends in part on decisions made before any meas- ure is administered to a child. Project designers should be able to explain why specific measures are used and what they hope to learn from the results. Assess- ment strategies can be formal (standard- ized testing) or informal (observation, portfolios, teacher and parent ratings). The selection of a strategy is guided by the purposes and goals of the assess- ment and is also affected by the available resources in terms of time, money and staff. Formal and informal assessment  strategies each have strengths and weak- nesses. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment requires a multi-method approach in order to encompass the many dimensions of children’s skills and abilities. Standardized Testing †¢Most rigid of assessment strategies, places the greatest constraints on chil- dren’s behavior. Considered objective, time- and cost-efficient, and suitable for making quantitative comparisons of aggregated data across groups. †¢ Preschoolers’ performance is highly influenced by children’s emotional states and experiences, sometimes causing unstable scores over time. Most individual tests of cognitive  ability must be administered in a controlled, relatively quiet area. Observations †¢ Intrude minimally into children’s activities, which naturally integrate all dimension of development— intellectual, motivational, social, physical, aesthetic, etc. †¢ Should be used to complete develop- mental scales of proven reliability and validity, they are not sufficient alone. Portfolios †¢ Involve multiple sources and methods of data collection, and occur over a representative period of time. A collection of student work, the process provides richer information than standardized tests. †¢ Encourage collaboration – between  students, teachers, and parents – and integrate assessment with instruction and learning. Teacher Ratings †¢Can be used to assess children’s cogni- tive and language abilities as well as social and emotional development. †¢ Can be specifically related to other types of assessments, including stan- dardized test scores, other validated assessment tools, or global assessments of children’s traits. Parent Ratings †¢ Encourage parents to observe and listen to their children. †¢Inform parents about the important behaviors and milestones in young children’s development and allows teachers to involve parents as partners  in assessment. Assessment Methods Preschool Policy Facts 3 Issues and positions involving assessment are summarized in a document from the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE) titled Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment and Program Evaluation: Building an Effective, Accountable System in Programs for Children Birth through Age 8. Given the pervasive use of testing and its probable expansion, when and under what conditions can this type of assessment be used appropriately with preschool-age  children? What characteristics of tests and their administration will guarantee that we â€Å"do no harm† to children and that we â€Å"do help† adults acquire valid informa- tion? Also, given that even the most well-designed tests can provide only limited data, how can we maximize the use of non-test assessments so they add valuable information beyond that obtained through standardized testing procedures? To produce meaningful data and minimize the risk of creating a harmful situation, all assessment tools for preschool-age children, whether formal or informal, should satisfy the following criteria: †¢ Assessment should not threaten children’s self-esteem, make them feel they have failed, or penalize them for what they do not know. †¢ Information should be obtained over time, or if time-distributed measurements are not feasible, unusual circumstances in the situation (e. g. , noise) or child (e. g. , fatigue) should be noted to avoid invalid, single-encounter results. †¢ Information should be obtained on the same content area from multiple and diverse sources, such as standardized tests, classroom observations and parent ratings, especially when repeated instances of data gathering are not feasible. †¢ The length of the assessment should be sensitive to young children’s interests and attention spans and therefore should probably not exceed 35-45 minutes. †¢ Testing for purposes of program accountability should be administered to a representative sample of students whenever feasible to reduce the overall time spent in testing and to minimize the chances for placing undue stress on children and burden on teachers and classrooms. Reliable and Valid Preschool Assessment To be reliable and valid, standardized testing should: †¢ Contain enough items to allow scores to represent this diverse range of indi-  vidual ability, in order to identify and distinguish among children of low, average and high levels of ability. †¢ Take place in a controlled environment that at least approximates the condi- tions experienced by the population on which the measure was standardized. †¢ Be administered by appropriately trained examiners who are familiar with testing materials and procedures and with working with young children. To obtain scores that resemble natural performance, informal assessments should: †¢ Take place in or simulate the natural environment in which the behavior being evaluated occurs to avoid meas-  uring the child’s response to an artifi- cial environment rather than the child’s ability to perform on the content. †¢ Be conducted by an assessor who is knowledgeable regarding the assess- ment materials and familiar with the children being assessed. When an outside researcher or evaluator must administer the assessment, it is best if the individual spends time in the classroom beforehand. †¢ Measure real knowledge in the context of real activities, resembling children’s ordinary activities as closely as possible. In addition, parent or teacher ratings should evaluate naturally occurring  behavior. †¢ Be conducted as a natural part of daily activities rather than as a time-added or pullout activity. This fact sheet is based on the policy brief â€Å"Preschool Assessment: A Guide to Developing a Balanced Approach† by Ann S. Epstein, Lawrence J. Schweinhart, Andrea DeBruin-Parecki and Kenneth B. Robin. The brief includes full references and is available at www. nieer. org. It was made possible by the generous support of The Pew Charitable Trusts. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The Pew Charitable Trusts. Preschool Policy Facts.

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer

Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another com pany, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value. From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving , and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners. 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 1988>2002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge. A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged. Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Determinants in the Process of Knowledge Transfer Knowledge was closely investigated by academic researchers for the last few decades. It is nowadays considered as one of the most important strategic assets (Winter, 1987) that contribute to the competitive advantage of the firms (Kogut and Zander, 1992); this perspective is associated with the knowledge-based view (Grant, 1996). Resulting from that numerous studies exist about knowledge. As Winter (1987) suggests, knowledge can be created, stored and transmitted (transferred), exploited and the ability to success in these activities represents the essence of the firm. Different studies consider these various stages. However, the process of transfer is very interesting to reflect on because it is precisely knowledge transfer that has been established by several academics as having a major impact on performance (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Some literature analyzes the process of knowledge transfer itself (ODell and Grayson, 1998; Szulanski, 2000), and its determinants (Grant and Baden- Fuller, 2000), other its boundaries (Szulanski, 1996; Salk, 1996; Hennart et al. 1999; Dyer and Hatch, 2006; Heiman and Nickerson, 2004). Together the authors try to shed light on the stages of knowledge transfer and factors that can positively or negatively contribute to it. Despite the abundance of studies, some researchers like Wagner (2005) call for the investigation of soft issues such as absorptive capacity and culture in successful knowledge sharing. Moreover, different researchers (Inkpen, 2000; Mowery et al. 1996), studied knowledge in the context of a strategic alliance. Some studies convey the idea that this might be the most appropriate form of collaboration in order to share (transfer) knowledge because of several advantages (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004). Other academics, as Simonin (1999), define difficulties that alliances face in the process of knowledge transfer. Therefore it might be useful to combine these ideas and see what makes alliances being so unique and how knowledge can be transferred in these structures. This literature review is meant to integrate various studies to make a clear picture of what makes the transfer of knowledge successful in-between partners of strategic alliance by reviewing determinants of knowledge transfer, particularities of alliances and possible strategies to follow in order to achieve the transfer. Problem statement The problem indication brings us to delimitate the following area of research: Successful knowledge transfer in a strategic alliance Research Questions Since knowledge becomes an essential asset, and its manipulation might have strong impact on the wellbeing and performance of the firm, it is interesting to investigate the knowledge transfer. Our inquiry will be done by first looking at what is knowledge and its different kinds. Then the models of knowledge transfer (in general) will be considered to see how knowledge is shared, finishing with the factors that can impact positively or negatively (barriers) on this process, this includes the soft issues sited previously. Research question 1: What are the key determinants in the process of knowledge transfer? Strategic alliances are often used by firms to transfer knowledge. Several studies might convey the idea that alliances is the most appropriate form of cooperation in order to transfer knowledge, that is why in the second research question we are going to discuss characteristics and particularities of alliances that contribute to build a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Research question 2: What characteristics and particularities of the strategic alliance might shape the process of knowledge transfer in this form of cooperation? Perhaps the most practical issue for organizations involved in the process of knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance is the one that deals with practices to implement and strategies to follow for both partners. Therefore the third research question will deal with possible behavior and ways of doing that can facilitate the knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Research question3: What strategies and behavior could the parties of the strategic alliance adopt  (implement) to enhance the transfer of knowledge and cope with the difficulties alliance might face? Research methods This is a descriptive research that will be done in the form of literature review. The data sources are the existing academic literature in the field of management, strategy and organization science. The literature includes top journals such as Journal of Management Studies, Strategic Management Journal, Knowledge and Process Management, Academy of Management Journal Structure of the thesis In the second chapter the investigation will be done in order to gain knowledge of what could be the determinants of the knowledge transfer in general (without considering the context of the strategic alliances). To do this, first of all, knowledge and its different kinds have to be defined. Following that the review of the literature about the process of knowledge transfer itself will be made. Chapter 2 will end with the review of possible factors that can affect the process by whether contributing to its success or by creating barriers to it. In the third chapter we are going to take a closer look on the strategic alliances. Following the definition, the discussion will pursue in order to understand why certain researchers think that strategic alliances are the most appropriate form of collaboration between firms for the process of knowledge transfer. Moreover, in this chapter we are going to look if certain characteristics of the alliance can ameliorate the transfer (i.e. firms similarities, orientation, strategy, resources). The last research question will be answered in the fourth chapter by examining the possible strategies and behaviors that companies involved in the alliance could undertake to enable a successful knowledge transfer, while they might face several challenges. At the end, conclusions will summarize this literature review bringing up possible questions for future discussion and useful recommendations about knowledge transfer within a strategic alliance. Chapter 2: The determinants in the process of knowledge transfer 1/ What is knowledge In general knowledge is considered to be gained by observation, study and experiences. It is the mixture of values, context information, expert insight (Davenport and Prusak, 1998) that resides within the person. It can be accumulated and subjected to improvements unlimited number of times. It is difficult to distinguish knowledge in itself from data and from information. Knowledge is neither of these two. Data results from transactions and information is derived from data. Fransman (1998) clearly underlines the fact that knowledge is indeed processed information. In this sense it is also possible to say that knowledge is socially constructed (Pentland 1995): individuals produce knowledge by processing information through their intellect. They act on knowledge by their actions and going through experiences, meanwhile their perspectives and insights change creating the opportunity to proceed differently in new situations, when new sets of information are available (Quinn et al. 1998; Weick 1995). 2/ Types of knowledge Another approach to introduce knowledge would be to state its different kinds: tacit and explicit. The observation of the existence of the explicit knowledge goes back to Polanyi (1966). Later the number of terms used were substantially enlarged to: formal, verbal knowledge (Corsini, 1987), declarative knowledge (Kogut and Zander, 1992), theoretical kind of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995), articulated or articulable knowledge (Hedlund, 1994; Winter, 1987), a know-why knowledge (Sanchez 1997). To Polanyi (1966) explicit knowledge is easily subjected to codification in a formal language (can be stated or written down). Winter (1987, p. 171) agrees on that definition by saying that this type of knowledge can be communicated from its possessor to another person in symbolic form and the recipient of the communication becomes as much in the know as the originator. Sobol and Lei (1994) identified two ways in which one can think about explicit knowledge. The first one in terms of communicability: it is easily written down, encoded, explained, or understood (Sobol and Lei, 1994, p. 170). Its also possible to think about this kind of knowledge in terms of possession: such knowledge is not specific or idiosyncratic to the firm or person possessing it (p. 170). Perhaps for this research the most interesting type of knowledge is the tacit knowledge because it is the one that largely contributes to competitive advantage of the firm. In fact, it was determined by several scholars (Delios and Beamish, 2001; Fang et al., 2007; Pisano, 1994) that tacit (as well as complex and specific) knowledge brings organizations to better-quality performance if its transfer was successfully accomplished. Also it is the type of knowledge that is considered to bring substantial competitive advantage by several academics (Nonaka, 1991; Grant, 1993; Spender, 1993). Polanyi (1966) wrote that tacit knowledge is non-verbalizable, intuitive and unarticulated. Consequently it is hard to replicate and share. Deeper understanding was brought by Nonaka (1994) and (Sternberg, 1994) who both support the fact that tacit knowledge is context-specific: it is a knowledge typically acquired on the job or in the situation where it is used (Sternberg, 1994, p. 28). Nonaka (1994) as other researchers also wrote that tacit knowledge is personal (Sanchez 1997), difficult to articulate, and highly linked with action (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Therefore, on the one hand tacit knowledge is very difficult to transfer but on the other hand this same characteristic makes it being a critical and strategic resource of the firm and its competitive advantage, because competitors can hardly replicate it (Grant,1993; Sobal and Lei, 1994). 3/ Models: How to transmit knowledge Before getting to discussion in which the transfer of knowledge involves strategic alliances, it is useful to look at the process itself. Several models attempt to explain the basics of knowledge transfer. Some of them identify key elements that play a role this process, other present stages and steps, finally some conditions are also acknowledged. In order to understand how knowledge is transferred it is possible to first look at the definitions in cognitive psychology. At the individual level, the transfer was defined as how knowledge acquired in one situation applies (or fails to apply) to another by Singley and Anderson (1989). The transfer of knowledge in the organizational context also involves transfer at the individual level because the evolution of knowledge merely occurs when individuals express the will to share their experiences and insights with others (Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Kim and Mauborgne, 1998). This movement of knowledge through various levels of organization from individual, through group, up to organizational was identified by Nonaka (1994) as the concept of spiral of knowledge creation. The same process as on individual level occurs also at other levels such as group, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Here the transfer of knowledge is the process in which knowledge and experience of one unit (company, group or department) affects another. Szulanski (2000, p.10) supports this vision: Knowledge transfer is seen as a process in which an organization recreates and maintains a complex, causally ambiguous set of routines (i.e. knowledge and experiences) in a new setting (i.e. another com pany, department, divisionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Knowledge transfer can be regarded as process which is composed of basic elements. Szulanski (2000) identified them as: source, channel, message, recipient, and context. Obviously, source is the unit from which the message (knowledge) will flow to the recipient by the channel and the whole process will be considered in a particular organizational context which can be fertile (facilitates knowledge transfer) or barren (problems occur with transfer). In the same research he explained several stages of the process of knowledge transfer. The process usually starts by the initiation. Then comes the implementation phase divided into several stages: the initial implementation effort, the ramp-up to satisfactory performance, and subsequent follow-through and evaluation efforts to integrate the practice with other practices of the recipient (Szulanski 2000, p.12) Furthermore, ODell and Grayson (1998) elaborated six steps in the knowledge transfer. Primary the identification of important knowledge is necessary. From this point on it is essential to collect the knowledge systematically and then organize the knowledge. When knowledge has been organized it can be shared (transferred), but before the final stage of usage of knowledge to solve problems, it has to be adapted. A number of conditions of knowledge transfer were presented by Grant and Baden-Fuller (2000). There are three main conditions of knowledge transfer. Firstly, the transmitters knowledge must be capable of being expressed in a communicable form. It is effortlessly done with explicit knowledge, however tacit knowledge has to be made explicit with the help of an expert system or be shared trough process of observation and imitation (p.122). What is more, transferred knowledge must be understandable to the source and the recipient. Therefore both have to use common knowledge which can be expressed in terms of the same language, information technology skills and culture. Finally, the new knowledge transferred from the source to recipient must be capable of aggregation which means that it would be possible to add to already existing knowledge. 4/What factors can influence the transfer of knowledge (positive and negative) Several features may play a substantial role in the process of knowledge transfer. When looking at the literature the most obvious in terms of determinants of knowledge transfer, might be the type of knowledge that is transferred. Explicit knowledge is easy to codify and to transfer. Conversely, a large number of studies, like Grant (1996), report the negative influence of knowledge tacitness on its transfer. In general it is considered that tacit knowledge is very difficult to share because of the complexity of its codification (Reed and DeFillippi, 1990) and organizational embeddedness (Kogut and Zander 1992) and that it contributes to creating ambiguity which can most of the times create barriers to the process of transfer. Simonin (1999, 2004) proposed a model in which knowledge tacitness indirectly influences knowledge transfer through ambiguity; it nevertheless specifies the importance of knowledge tacitness as critical factor which makes knowledge transfer difficult. Academics like Grant (1996), Reed and DeFillippi (1990) and Zander and Kogut (1995) raise the issue of complexity of knowledge. Complexity may appear for example when different kinds of skills and wide range of knowledge (individual, team-based experiences, technologies) have to be shared. The more complex the knowledge, the more difficult it is to share. Reed and DeFillippi (1990) also considered the influence of the specificity on knowledge transfer. The term refers to knowledge which is related only to certain kind of transaction relations. Williamson (1999) defined specificity as the ease with which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without loss of productive value. From these studies it is now clear that tacitness, complexity and specificity impedes to knowledge transfer by creating ambiguity. According to Simonin (1999) tacitness has the greatest influence in this relationship, followed by specificity, which is much less significant and finally complexity. It seems that culture and willingness to share, elements often cited as factors that can influence knowledge transfer, are interrelated. Willingness to share is one of the key determinants of knowledge transfer; this means that one must be willing to share and the other one to receive. It is not always easy to let go from knowledge. As Bernstein (2000) suggests that willingness to share is influenced by identity because an individual might have a psychological ownership over the knowledge he possesses. Furthermore, Alavi and Leidner (1999) made a good remark about the fact that it will be difficult for organizations to share knowledge and integrate knowledge-based systems without primary having the information sharing culture (i.e. valuing information sharing). Davenport (1997) describes this as open versus closed culture. Very similar to the concept of willingness to share, Szulanski (1996, p.12) argued that lack of motivation also has to be considered as one of the barriers to the process of knowledge transfer because it may result in procrastination, passivity, feigned acceptance, sabotage, or outright rejection in the implementation and use of new knowledge. Szulanski (1996) also noticed another barrier of knowledge transfer. Absorptive capacity is one of the very well known elements that influence the transfer of knowledge. It is the ability to exploit outside sources of knowledge (Cohen Levinthal, 1990, p. 128) and integrate it by replacing old practices by new ones, which is not always effortless (Glaser, Abelson, Garrison, 1983). Chapter 3: Particularities of strategic alliances shaping the process of knowledge transfer Combining resources is the logical response to the harshness of nowadays competition. Other factors as the increase in customers expectations and the less strict regulatory barriers also led companies to form alliances (Gomes-Casseres 1994; Harrigan 1988; Kogut 1988; Nielsen 1988). However these are not the only possibilities alliances are able to provide. Alliances can be considered as one of the means for knowledge gaining and sharing, besides mergers and acquisitions. According to Inkpen (2000) there exist several possibilities for companies to transfer and gain knowledge: internalization within the firm, market contracts, and relational contracts. He considers individual strategic alliances as relational contracts that permit knowledge acquisition and transfer, suitable in the context where knowledge is complex and hard to codify, whereas market based transfers are considered to be more efficient for product related (embodied) knowledge. Number of other researchers also supported the fact that alliances permit firms to share knowledge and ultimately to learn from the partners (Grant, 1996; Hamel, 1991; Khanna et al., 1998; Kogut, 1998). Inkpen (2000, p.1019) wrote: Through the shared execution of the alliance task, mutual interdependence and problem solving , and observation of alliance activities and outcomes, firms can learn from their partners. 1/ Definition strategic alliance In the literature it is possible to find several key characteristics of an alliance. An alliance is usually created between two or more firms that cooperate together in order to achieve some strategic objective, create value that they would not be able to achieve on their own (Borys and Jemison, 1989) and pursue a set of goals (Harrigan 1988; Yoshino and Rangan 1995). Partners are complementary and contribute with their resources and capabilities (Teece, 1992); they are involved in a range of interdependent activities (Contractor and Lorange 1988>2002) and share benefits and risks of the alliance. Dussauge et al. (2000, p.99) described an alliance between two Knowledge Based Enterprises as: an arrangement between two or more independent companies that choose to carry out a project or operate in a specific business area by co-coordinating the necessary skills and resources jointly rather than either operating alone or merging their operations. Some academics consider alliances to be arrangements in which firms establish exchange relationship without joint ownership being considered as a form of alliance (Dickson Weaver, 1997); others consider equity alliances such as joint ventures, also be a form of alliance (Mowery et al. 1996). In this research all possible forms of alliances are considered: a non-equity alliance (co-operation without creation of new organization or exchange of equity); an equity alliance (unilateral or bilateral equity holding among partners without creation of the a new firm); a joint venture (new firm is created, involving joint resources, where partners share ownership and control) 2/ Why strategic alliance can be considered (by certain researchers) the most appropriate form of collaboration for knowledge transfer? Accordingly, of all approaches to knowledge imitability between a knowledge holder and a knowledge seeker, strategic alliances constitute perhaps the most adequate, but nevertheless challenging vehicle for internalizing the others competency Simonin (1999, 595). There are several forms of interorganizational exchange that enable firms to protect valuable resources including mergers and acquisitions, licensing and alliances (Coff, 1997). There are two kinds of knowledge explicit and tacit (Polanyi, 1966), therefore if two firms share knowledge, it will be explicit explicit, explicit tacit or tacit tacit. Licensing can provide a solution for the first two combinations. Yet, it is very hard to gain competitive advantage with explicit knowledge resources, because they might be sold to other companies. By contrast, competitive advantage occurs when tacit knowledge assets are combined, provided their ambiguity, complexity and inimitability (Barney 1991; Dierickx and Cool 1989). This is done through alliances or mergers and acquisitions. Conventional sale contracts, markets, mergers and acquisitions seem to be less attractive structures for knowledge transfer in comparison with alliances. Coff (1997) found that it is not easy to evaluate the value of knowledge based resources, primary because of their tacitness (Mowery, 1983; Pisano, 1990). Firms that want to acquire new knowledge will have to face uncertainty concerning its characteristics and difficulties to determine its quality and to be certain of the transferability of the knowledge held by another firm. Some researchers raise a concern about the fact that in some cases the firm that will acquire knowledge is not certain to be able to deploy it (Flamholtz and Coff 1994; Haspeslagh and Jemison 1991; Polanyi 1966; Zander and Kogut 1995). In this sense, alliance permits to mitigate risks of bad investments. The indigestibility problem of MA, quite the opposite of alliances, was discussed by several academics (Hennart and Reddy, 1997; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997; Dunning, 1997). Indigestible assets are those who come with valuable assets during the transaction (Nonaka 1994). In fact, for some of these assets (in this case knowledge) the aftermarket may not exist after the acquisition. Within an alliance the company does not have to pay for digestion of non-valuable assets and has access to important knowledge resources held by the partner. Reid, Bussiere, Greenaway 2001 (alliance formation issues) Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) identified some advantages of alliances related to knowledge like possibility to achieve early-mover advantage and risk spreading. Early-mover advantage signifies recombining knowledge into innovative products in a quickly advancing knowledge environment. More precisely, this means to quickly identify, access, and integrate across new knowledge combinations. In this situation strategic alliances enable company to quickly access knowledge necessary for introduction of new products to market. Grant and Baden-Fuller (2004) wrote: The greater the benefits of early-mover advantage in technologically-dynamic environments, the greater the propensity for firms to establish interfirm collaborative arrangements in order to access new knowledge. A risk exists in terms that sometimes a company might be uncertain about the future knowledge requirements and knowledge acquisition and integration takes time, the investments are risky (Grant and Baden-Fuller, 2004): The greater the uncertainty as to the future knowledge requirements of a firms product range, the greater its propensity to engage in interfirm collaborations as a means of accessing and integrating additional knowledge. Powell (1987) also noticed that alliance formation diminishes the risk that knowledge will dissipate quickly. 3/ Which characteristics and capabilities of alliance partners can ameliorate the transfer of knowledge? Before considering the transfer of knowledge, it is important to underline, that both partners of an alliance are expected to possess valuable knowledge (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven 1996). Ahuja (2000) considered such knowledge possession as opportunity for linkage-formation. He also identified three categories of valuable knowledge assets that are: technical capital (capability to create new products, technology and processes), commercial capital (supporting resources) and social capital (useful networks). Throughout the literature it is possible to distinguish some capabilities that are important for proper functioning of the knowledge based alliance: absorptive capacity, combinative capability, experience with alliances, suitable design for knowledge exchange, and choice of alliance structure. In numerous studies, absorptive capacity plays an essential role in the process of knowledge transfer and learning within strategic alliances (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (1999) wrote that it combined the evaluation, acquisition integration and commercial utilization of knowledge obtained from sources exogenous to the firm. Absorptive capacity is susceptible to evolve and augment through activity (Barringer and Harrison, 2000) because it is historical and path dependent in nature as was defined by Cohen and Levinthal (1990). Grant (1996) recognized that knowledge absorption capability can be influenced by: the degree to which the expert knowledge held by organizational members is utilized; the width of specialized knowledge required from firm members; the degree to which a capability can access additional knowledge and reconfigure existing knowledge. Defined by Kogut and Zander (1992) combinative capability refers to the ability of the parties of an alliance to extend, interpret, apply, current and acquired knowledge with the goal of generating new applications from existing knowledge base. Collaborative know-how affects firms ability to form a successful partnership and create a solid ground for knowledge transfer. Simonin (1997) refers to it as to ability to institutionalize organizational routines as a result of previous experiences. Pennings et al. (1994) supports that firms tend to reproduce the behavior from their past experiences. When firms have previous experiences of collaboration within alliance, they acquire knowledge that helps them to effectively design future alliances (Lyles, 1988) and develop superior capabilities at managing particular organizational forms such as alliances (Kale et al., 2002, p. 748). This experience permits avoiding various difficulties (Doz, 1996; Powell et al., 1996). Teece (2000) stressed the importance of the design of the firm to enhance performance and knowledge sharing. He identified distinctive characteristics of design in successful firms. Among these, entrepreneurial orientation and flexibility expressed in rapid responses to ephemeral market opportunities flexible boundaries (outsourcing and alliances). They were also characterized by their non-bureaucratic decision making and rapid internal knowledge sharing owing to the not really strict hierarchies. The choice of alliance structure should be determined considering the perspective of gaining valuable resources (knowledge) from a partner without losing its own (Das and Teng, 2000). Different views exist as to effectiveness of equity joint venture form of alliance for successful knowledge transfer. Several researchers find that this form is the most suitable for the transfer of tacit knowledge and complex capabilities (Kogut, 1988, Mowery et al., 1996). However, Das and Teng (2000) think that this structure is too risky for partnership based on knowledge-based contribution, and that it is more suitable for contributing property-based resources. Inkpen (2002) identifies five categories of antecedents of alliance learning: learning partner characteristics; teaching partner characteristics; knowledge characteristics; relationship factors; and alliance form. Two key characteristics of the learning partner, identified by Nielsen and Nielsen (2009), are important, namely collaborative know-how (same as previous experience of alliances) and knowledge protectiveness (Simonin, 1997, 1999). Protectiveness matches the concept of openness and the degree to which partners are protective of their knowledge. How well do the support the risk of knowledge leakage or spillover (Inkpen, 2000). Chapter 4: potential strategies and behavior that parties of the strategic alliance might adopt to enhance the transfer of knowledge and to cope with difficulties alliances might face Strategic alliances might face a number of difficulties. The first thing that comes out from the numerous literature on strategic alliance and knowledge sharing, is the fear of knowledge spillovers, that are assumed to be inevitable consequence of alliance involvement, despite the efforts companies make in order to protect their valuable knowledge assets (Inkpen, 2000). Therefore, it immediately comes to the issue of trust. In the late 90 a discussion was raised about the possibility that some firms use strategic alliance as a Trojan Horse in order to steal knowledge from its partners. This was especially thought about Japanese partners. However empirical studies do not find support for this hypothesis (Hennart et al. 1999; Mowery 1996). The literature elaborates on so called learning races (Khanna et al. 1998) when one partner (acts opportunistically) tries to gain more knowledge in the alliance exchange, than he shares. Hamel (1991, 86) described alliances as transitional devices where the primary objective was the internalization of partner skills. This creates a significant challenge for strategic alliance. To deal with with this issue, norms and systems can be designed; functional rules can be developed to structure partner engagement (QuÃÆ' ©lin, 1997). When little trust is involved, this may lead to knowledge protectiveness from one or both of the partners. Nielsen and Nielsen (2009) wrote that protectiveness not only may lead to uncertainty and conflict but it also reduces the amount of information exchanged.

Senator Joseph R. McCarthy Essay example -- Essays Papers

Senator Joseph R. McCarthy Even though he had humble beginnings, Joseph Raymond McCarthy, a single man, made a profound effect on the entire United States during his career. By following his life and what shaped McCarthy as an individual, a broader picture is brought into the scope of the cause of his false accusations. In the year 1908, in the northeast region of Wisconsin on a struggling farm, a devout Roman Catholic couple brought a their son, Joseph Raymond, into the world. The McCarthy’s, an Irish-American family, were hard working and industrious on their farm in a rural area of Wisconsin. Joseph attended a one-room schoolhouse as a boy. He was noted to be a very intelligent child, and finished grade school early. He was observed as an exuberant, outgoing child who was sometimes even intimidating to other children because of his aggressiveness and tendency to pick fights for the fun of it. Jospeh started his own chicken farm and in no time at all, became very successful in his business. Several years later, however, his luck took a bad turn and he had to give it up. He started working at a grocery store in Appleton, where he moved up to a manager position and was transferred to a store in Manawa, Wisconsin. In Manawa, Joseph made the store a huge success. He brought in all sorts of customers by going around town and all of his attention to his customers. It was shortly after his transfer that he decided to go back to school. McCarthy put so much effort into his studies that he completed high school in one year, even with extra curricular activities like hiking and basketball and school committies. He continued on to Marquette University in the fall... ... States Army and lost. He was discredited and Congress took a vote on whether or not to boot McCarthy out of office. He did not lose his seat, but McCarthy's career was on the decline. After the vote, McCarthy was continually cut by the White House, senatorial committees and the press. Due to lack of the public attention he needed, McCarthy turned to an old habit of his - drinking. Over the summer in 1956, McCarthy was repeatedly hospitalized for detoxification, and in 1957, was admitted once again for liver ailment due to alcohol abuse. At the age of 49, on May 2, Senator Joseph R. McCarthy died in Bethesda Naval Hospital. Works Cited Klingaman, William K., Encyclopedia of the McCarthy Era. New York: Facts on File, c1996. Reeves, Thomas C., The Life and Times of Joe McCarthy: a biography/Thomas C. Reeves. NewYork: Stein and Day, 1982.

Local Area Networks :: essays research papers

LANs: Local Area Networks Local Area Networks also called LANs have been a major player in industrialization of computers. In the past 20 or so years the worlds industry has be invaded with new computer technology. It has made such an impact on the way we do business that it has become essential with an ever-growing need for improvement. LANs give an employer the ability to share information between computers with a simple relatively inexpensive system of network cards and software. It also lets the user or users share hardware such as Printers and scanners. The speed of access between the computers is lighting fast because the data has a short distance to cover. In most cases a LAN only occupies one or a group of buildings located next to each other. For larger area need there are several other types of networks such as the Internet.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  LANs systems can be defined and connected in many different ways. This is the reason for the standardization for every one can have a common ground to start from. â€Å"The LANs described Herein are distinguished from other types of data networks in that they are optimized for a moderate size geographic area such as a single office building, warehouse, or a campus. The IEEE 802 LAN is a shared medium peer-to-peer communications network that broadcasts information for all stations to receive. As a consequence, it does not inherently provide privacy. The LAN enables stations to communicate directly using a common physical medium on a point-to-point basis without any intermediate switching node being required. There is always need for an access sublayer in order to arbitrate to access to the shared medium. The network is generally owned, used, and operated by a single organization. This is in contrast to Wide Area Networks (WANs) that interconnect communication faci lities in different parts of a country or are used as a public utility. These LANs are also different from networks, such as backplane buses, that are optimized for the interconnection of devices on a desk top or components within a single piece of equipment.†(IEEE 802 Standard 1990) That is the standard definition for LANs by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer committee 802. They are the committee used to set the standard in workmanship and operations for technicians that set-up and perform maintenance on LANs systems. And through all the technical words what they are trying to say is a LAN is a small area network that distributes information among computer in a small work environment unlike WANs that distribute information across global areas.